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Love represents a range of emotions and experiences related to the senses of
affection and sexual attraction.[1] The word love can refer to a variety of
different feelings, states, and attitudes, ranging from generic pleasure to
intense interpersonal attraction. This diversity of meanings, combined with the
complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to
consistently define, even compared to other emotional states.
As an abstract concept love usually refers to a strong, ineffable feeling
towards another person. Even this limited conception of love, however,
encompasses a wealth of different feelings, from the passionate desire and
intimacy of romantic love to the nonsexual. Love in its various forms acts as a
major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central
psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.
Spiritual love, or longing for God, is highly valued and sought after by many
religions of both Eastern and Western origin.
Definitions
The English word love can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in
different contexts. Often, other languages use multiple words to express some of
the different concepts which English relies mainly on love to encapsulate; one
example is the plurality of Greek words for "love". Cultural differences in
conceptualizing love thus make it doubly difficult to establish any universal
definition.[2] American psychologist Zick Rubin try to define love by the
psychometrics. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment,
caring and intimacy.[3][4]
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate,
different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't "love".
As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), love is
commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more
emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted
with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is
commonly contrasted with friendship, though other definitions of the word love
may be applied to close friendships in certain contexts. When discussed in the
abstract, love usually refers to interpersonal love, an experience felt by a
person for another person. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a
person or thing, including oneself (cf. narcissism).
In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about
love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern
conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages,
though the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love
poetry.[5] Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love
is commonly reduced to a thought-terminating cliché, and there are a number of
common proverbs regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The
Beatles' "All you need is love". Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition
of "absolute value", as opposed to relative value. Theologian Thomas Jay Oord
said that to love is to "act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others,
to promote overall well-being".[6]
A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it
greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and
volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be borne not of
interpersonal love, but impersonal love coupled with altruism and strong
political convictions. People can also "love" material objects, animals, or
activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with
that item. If sexual passion is also involved, this condition is called
paraphilia.[7]
Interpersonal love
Grandmother and grandchild, Sri Lanka
Grandmother and grandchild, Sri Lanka
Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a more potent
sentiment than a simple liking for another. Unrequited love refers to those
feelings of love which are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely
associated with interpersonal relationships. Such love might exist between
family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological
disorders related to love, such as erotomania.
Scientific views
Main article: Love (scientific views)
Throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on
the phenomenon of love. In the last century, the science of psychology has
written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of
evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology, anthropology, neuroscience, and
biology have added to the understanding of the nature and function of love.
Chemistry
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like
hunger or thirst.[8] Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love,
divides the experience of love into three partly-overlapping stages: lust,
attraction, and attachment. Lust exposes people to others, romantic attraction
encourages people to focus their energy on mating, and attachment involves
tolerating the spouse long enough to rear a child into infancy.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves
the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These
effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more
individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which
develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies
in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain
consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones,
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act similar to amphetamines,
stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side-effects such as an
increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of
excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and
a half to three years.[9]
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third
stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the
bonding which promotes relationships that last for many years, and even decades.
Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or
on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked
to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin than short-term
relationships have.[9] In 2005, Italian scientists at Pavia University found
that a protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels
when people first fall in love, but these levels return to as they were after
one year. Specifically, four neurotrophin levels, i.e. NGF, BDNF, NT-3, and
NT-4, of 58 subjects who had recently fallen in love were compared with levels
in a control group who were either single or already engaged in a long-term
relationship. The results showed that NGF levels were significantly higher in
the subjects in love than as compared to either of the control groups.[10]
Psychology
Further information: Human bonding
Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist
Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has
three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a
form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal
lives. Intimacy is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs.
Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is
permanent. The last and most common form of love is sexual attraction and
passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All
forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components.
Following developments in electrical theories, such as Coulomb's law, which
showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were
developed, such as "opposites attract". Over the last century, research on the
nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to
character and personality; people tend to like people similar to themselves.
However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems
that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g. with an orthogonal
immune system), since this will lead to a baby which has the best of both
worlds.[11] In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed
described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic
and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose
works in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and
evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the
spiritual growth of another", and simple narcissism.[12] In combination, love is
an activity, not simply a feeling.
Comparison of scientific models
Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602-1603) by Giovanni Baglione
Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602-1603) by Giovanni Baglione
Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger
or thirst.[citation needed] Psychology sees love as more of a social and
cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views —
certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such
as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced
by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that there are
two major drives in love — sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between
adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become
attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a
combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense
longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath,
rapid heart rate). Companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not
accompanied by physiological arousal.
Studies have shown that brain scans of those infatuated by love display a
resemblance to those with a mental illness. Love creates activity in the same
area of the brain that hunger, thirst, and drug cravings create activity in. New
love, therefore, could possibly be more physical than emotional. Over time, this
reaction to love mellows, and different areas of the brain are activated,
primarily ones involving long-term commitments. Dr. Andrew Newberg, a
neuroscientist, suggests that this reaction to love is so similar to that of
drugs because without love, humanity would die out.
Cultural views
Persian
Even after all this time
The sun never says to the earth "you owe me".
Look what happens with a Love like that!
- It lights the whole Sky. (Hafiz)
Rumi, Hafez and Sa'di are icons of the passion and love that the Persian culture
and language present. The Persian word for love is eshgh, deriving from the
Arabic ishq. In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all
is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and
eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life. Over
seven centuries ago, Sa'di wrote:
The children of Adam are limbs of each other
Having been created of one essence.
When the calamity of time afflicts one limb
The other limbs cannot remain at rest.
If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others
You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man".
Chinese and other Sinic cultures
The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle)
inside of "accept", "feel", or "perceive", which shows a graceful emotion.
The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle)
inside of "accept", "feel", or "perceive", which shows a graceful emotion.
In contemporary Chinese language and culture, several terms or root words are
used for the concept of "love":
* Ai (愛) is used as a verb (e.g. Wo ai ni, "I love you") or as a noun,
especially in aiqing (愛情), "love" or "romance." In mainland China since 1949,
airen (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant
word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being
de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among
many on Taiwan.
* Lian (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as
"being in love" (談戀愛, tan lian'ai—also containing ai), "lover" (戀人, lianren) or
"homosexuality" (同性戀, tongxinglian).
* Qing (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in
several terms. It is contained in the word aiqing (愛情); qingren (情人) is a term
for "lover".
In Confucianism, lian is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by
all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher Mozi
developed the concept of ai (愛) in reaction to Confucian lian. Ai, in Mohism, is
universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without
regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ai.
Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian lian is how most Chinese
conceive of love.
Gănqíng (感情), the "feeling" of a relationship, vaguely similar to empathy. A
person will express love by building good gănqíng, accomplished through helping
or working for another and emotional attachment toward another person or
anything.
Yuanfen (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is
often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to
serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each
other," "fate," or "destiny".
Zaolian (Simplified: 早恋, Traditional: 早戀, pinyin: zǎoliàn), literally, "early
love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or
attachments among children or adolescents. Zaolian describes both relationships
among a teenaged boyfriend and girlfriend, as well as the "crushes" of early
adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief
in contemporary Chinese culture that due to the demands of their studies
(especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth
should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for
success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other
media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to
students and the fears of parents.
Japanese
In Japanese Buddhism, ai (愛) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental
desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and
enlightenment.
Amae (甘え), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence", is part of the
child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge
their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging
and serving. Some sociologists have suggested that Japanese social interactions
in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae.
Ancient Greek
Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word love is used. For
example, Ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge and xenia.
However, with Greek as with many other languages, it has been historically
difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time the
Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo being used with
the same meaning as phileo.
Agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern day Greek. The term s'agapo means I
love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a
"pure", ideal type of love rather than the physical attraction suggested by
eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros.
It has also been translated as "love of the soul".
Eros (ἔρως érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek
word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is
initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of
the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself.
Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty, and contributes to an
understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to
seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body".
Philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by
Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires
virtue, equality and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one
or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. Can also mean "love of the
mind". Storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents
for offspring.
Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in Ancient
Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and their
guest, who could previously be strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for
the guest, who was only expected to repay with gratitude. The importance of this
can be seen throughout Greek mythology, in particular Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
Turkish (Shaman & Islamic)
In Turkish the word "love" comes up with several meanings. A person can love the
god, a person, the parents or the family. But that person can "love" just one
person from the opposite sex which they call the word "ask". Ask is a feeling
for to love, as it still is in Turkish today. The Turks used this word just for
their romantic loves in a romantic or sexual sense. If a Turk says that he is in
love (ask) with somebody, it is not a love that a person can feel for his or her
parents; it is just for one person and it indicates a huge infatuation.
Ancient Roman (Latin)
The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word
'love'.
Amare is the basic word for to love, as it still is in Italian today. The Romans
used it both in an affectionate sense, as well as in a romantic or sexual sense.
From this verb come amans, a lover, amator, 'professional lover', often with the
accessory notion of lechery, and amica, 'girlfriend' in the English sense, often
as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is
amor, which is also used in the plural form to indicate 'love affairs' or
'sexual adventures'. This same root also produces amicus, 'friend', and
amicitia, 'friendship' (often based on mutual advantage, and corresponding
sometimes more closely to 'indebtedness' or 'influence'). Cicero wrote a
treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia) which discusses the notion at some
length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Lovers),
which addresses in depth everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective
parents.
Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses amare where English
would simply say to like; this notion, however, is much more generally expressed
in Latin by placere or delectare, which are used more colloquially, and the
latter of which is used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus.
Diligere often has the notion 'to be affectionate for', 'to esteem', and rarely
if ever is used of romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the
friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the
meaning 'diligence' 'carefulness' and has little semantic overlap with the verb.
Observare is a synonym for 'diligere'; despite the cognate with English, this
verb and its corresponding noun 'observantia' often denote 'esteem' or
'affection'.
Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean 'charitable
love'. This meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature.
As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding
verb.
Religious views
Christian
The Christian understanding is that love comes from God. The love of man and
woman, eros in Greek, and the unselfish love of others, agape, are often
contrasted as 'ascending' and 'descending' love, respectively, but are
ultimately the same thing. [13]
There are several Greek words for Love that are regularly referred to in
Christian circles.
* Agape - In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and
unconditional. It is parental love seen as creating goodness in the world, it is
the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that
Christians aspire to have for one another.
* Phileo - Also used in the New Testament, Phileo is a human response to
something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love".
* Two other words for love in the Greek language -- Eros (sexual love) and
storge (needy child-to-parent love) were never used in the New Testament.
Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and
Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the
greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus - c.f. Gospel of
Mark chapter 12, verses 28-34). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote
"Love God, and do as thou wilt".
Paul the Apostle glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing
love in the famous poem in 1 Corinthians he wrote, "Love is patient, love is
kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it
is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs.
Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects,
always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." - 1 Cor. 13:4-7 (NIV)
John the Apostle wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and
only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.
For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save
the world through him. Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever
does not believe stands condemned already because he has not believed in the
name of God's one and only Son." - John 3:16-18 (NIV)
John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God.
Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love
does not know God, because God is love." - 1 John 4:7-8 (NIV)
Saint Augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between
love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an over indulgence, but to
love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, “I
was in love with love.” Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God.
Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God,
because love with a human only allows for flaws such as, “jealousy, suspicion,
fear, anger, and contention.” According to Saint Augustine to love God is “to
attain the peace which is yours.” (Saint Augustine Confessions)
Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans
and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C.S. Lewis
wrote a book called The Four Loves.
Benedict XVI wrote his first encyclical on God is love. He said that a human
being, created in the image of God who is love, is able to practice love: to
give himself to God and others (agape), by receiving and experiencing God's love
in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the
saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary, and is the
direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.[14]
Buddhist
In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to
enlightenment, since it is selfish.
Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is
complementary to wisdom, and is necessary for enlightenment.
Adveṣa and maitrī are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires
considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from the ordinary love,
which is usually about attachment and sex, which rarely occur without
self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish
interest in others' welfare.
The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of
oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest
motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of
salvation within unselfish, altustic love for all sentient beings.
Indic and Hindu
In Hinduism kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kamadeva.
For many Hindu schools it is the third end (artha) in life. Kamadeva is often
pictured holding a bow of sugarcane and an arrow of flowers: he may ride upon a
great parrot. He is usually accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion
Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Kaama and Rati can be seen
on the door of the Chenna Keshava temple at Belur, in Karnataka, India. Maara is
another name for kāma.
In contrast to kāma, prema or prem refers to elevated love. Karuna is compassion
and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a
Sanskrit term meaning 'loving devotion to the supreme God'. A person who
practices bhakti is called a bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and
philosophers have distinguished nine forms of bhakti which can be found in the
Bhagavatha-Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work Narada Bhakti
Sutras written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada) distinguishes eleven
forms of love.
Arabic and Islamic views
In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal
brotherhood which applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct
references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (Allah),
there is the name Al-Wadud or 'the Loving One', which is found in Surah 11:90 as
well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness". All
who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased
God depends on the individual itself.
Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism. Sufis believe that love is a
projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize
beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself
within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the
school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism
is often referred to as the religion of Love. God in Sufism is referred to in
three main terms which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved with the last of these
terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that
through Love humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints
of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their Love of God hence the
constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.
Jewish
In Hebrew Ahava is the most commonly-used term for both interpersonal love and
love of God. Other related but dissimilar terms are Chen (grace) and Hesed,
which basically combines the meaning of "affection" and "compassion" and is
sometimes rendered in English as "loving-kindness".
Judaism employs a wide definition of love, both between people and between man
and the Deity. As for the former, the Torah states: "Love your neighbor like
yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God
"with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (Deuteronomy
6:5), taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to
good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain
serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all one's possessions and being
grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic
literature differs how this love can be developed, e.g. by contemplating Divine
deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.
As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to
life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes 9:9). The Biblical book
Song of Songs is considered a romantically-phrased metaphor of love between God
and his people, but in its plain reading reads like a love song.
The 20th century Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining
love from the Jewish point-of-view as "giving without expecting to take" (from
his Michtav me-Eliyahu, vol. 1). Romantic love per se has few echoes in Jewish
literature, although the Medieval Rabbi Judah Halevi wrote romantic poetry in
Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later).
Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water
and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition
or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other
categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many
human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most
cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other
methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.
Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking
traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as
gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation,
cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which
helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by
consumption.
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are
omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which
foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with foodborne illness
claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used
metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".
Food sources
Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin, although there are some
exceptions. Foods not coming from animal or plant sources include various edible
fungi, such mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of
fermented and pickled foods such as leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese,
pickles, and yogurt. Many cultures eat seaweed, a protist, or blue-green algae
(cyanobacteria) such as Spirulina.[1] Additionally, salt is often eaten as a
flavoring or preservative, and baking soda is used in food preparation. Both of
these are inorganic substances, as is water, an important part of human diet.
Plants
Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant
species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct
cultivars.[2]
Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans because
they contain nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth. In fact, the
majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds
include cereals (such as maize, wheat, and rice), legumes (such as beans, peas,
and lentils), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils, such as
sunflower, rape (including canola oil), and sesame.[3] One of the earliest food
recipes made from ground chickpeas is called hummus, which can be traced back to
Ancient Egypt times.
Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many
plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so
that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds some distance away.
Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures.
Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins and eggplants, are eaten as
vegetables.[4] (For more information, see list of fruits.)
Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food.
These include root vegetables (such as potatoes and carrots), leaf vegetables
(such as spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables (such as bamboo shoots and
asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (such as globe artichokes and
broccoli). Many herbs and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables.[5]
Animals
Animal source foods
Animals can be used as food either directly, or indirectly by the products they
produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which
comes from either muscle systems or from organs. Food products produced by
animals include milk produced by mammals, which in many cultures is drunk or
processed into dairy products such as cheese or butter. In addition birds and
other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a popular
sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, some in the form of
blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food
scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as civet.[6]
Production
Agriculture
Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with
hunting, foraging and other methods of subsistence locally important. More
recently, there has been a growing trend towards more sustainable agricultural
practices. This approach, which is partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages
biodiversity, local self-reliance and organic farming methods.[7] Major
influences on food production are international organizations, (e.g. the World
Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy
(or law), and war.[8]
Preparation
While some food can be eaten raw, many foods undergo some form of preparation
for reasons of safety, palatability, or flavor. At the simplest level this may
involve washing, cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as
spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking,
fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation
takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or
aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; and others
may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is
prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.[9]
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter,
evisceration, hanging, portioning and rendering. In developed countries, this is
usually done outside the home in slaughterhouses which are used to process
animals en mass for meat production. Many countries regulate their
slaughterhouses by law. For example the United States has established the Humane
Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing.
This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to
religious law, such as kosher shechita and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations
of kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is
cut.[10]
On the local level a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into
smaller manageable cuts and pre-wrapped for commercial sale or wrapped to order
in butcher paper. In addition fish and seafood may be fabricated into smaller
cuts by a fish monger at the local level. However fish butchery may be done on
board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality.[11]
Cooking
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations
of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking
technique, known as culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement
and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the
desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients,
ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cooking.[12] The
diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional,
aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that
impact upon it.[13]
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always,
chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and
nutritional properties.[14] Cooking proper, as opposed to roasting, requires the
boiling of water in a container, and was practiced at least since the 10th
millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.[15] There is archaeological
evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000
years ago.[16]
Cooking equipment and methods
There are many types of cooking equipment used for cooking. Ovens are one type
of cooking equipment which can be used for baking or roasting and offer a
dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of ovens,
for example Indian culture uses a Tandoor oven is a cylindrical clay oven which
operates at a single high temperature,[17] while western kitchens will use
variable temperature convection ovens, conventional ovens, toaster ovens in
addition to non-radiant heat ovens like the microwave oven. Ovens may be
wood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired.[18]
A stainless steel frying pan.
A stainless steel frying pan.
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of
fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. cook-tops are used to heat vessels
placed on top of the heat source, such as a sauté pan, sauce pot, frying pan,
pressure cooker, etc. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry
cooking method and include methods such as steaming, simmering, boiling, and
poaching for moist methods; while the dry methods include sautéing, pan frying,
or deep-frying.[19]
In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grill operates with a
radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes
a cover. An open bit barbecue in the American south is one example along with
the American style outdoor grill fueled by wood, liquid propane or charcoal
along with soaked wood chips for smoking.[20] A Mexican style of barbecue is
called barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats and whole sheep over open
fire. In Argentina, asado is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire
made upon the ground, on which a whole animal is grilled or in other cases
smaller cuts of the animal.[21]
Raw food
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. Sushi
in Japan is one such cuisine that features raw sliced fish, either in sashimi,
nigiri, or maki styles.[22] Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made
from diced or ground raw beef or salmon respectively, mixed with various
ingredients and served with baguette, brioche or frites.[23] In Italy, carpaccio
is a dish of very thin sliced raw beef, drizzled with a vinaigrette made with
olive oil.[24] A popular health food movement known as raw foodism promotes a
mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables and grains prepared in various ways,
including juicing, food dehydration, not passing the 118 degree mark, and
sprouting.[25]
Many cultures produce food for sale in restaurants for paying customers. These
restaurants often have trained chefs who prepare the food, while trained
waitstaff serve the customers. The term restaurant is credited to the French
from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the bouillons
that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of
these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation may have
existed during the age of the city of Pompeii, as well as an urban sales of
prepared foods in China during the Song Dynasty. The coffee shops or cafes of
17th century Europe may also be considered an early version of the
restaurant.[26] In 2005 the United States spent $496 billion annually for
out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining was as follows,
40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (fast
food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and vending machines, 4.7% in
hotels and motels, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in other which includes
military bases.[27]
FFood manufacture
Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as
simple as a butcher preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international food
industry. Early food processing techniques were limited by available food
preservation, packaging and transportation. This mainly involved salting,
curing, curdling, drying, pickling, fermentation and smoking.[28] During the
industrialization era in the 19th century, food manufacturing arose.[29] This
development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such
as milling, preservation, packaging and labeling and transportation. It brought
the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people
who did not employ domestic servants.[30]
At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few
international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food
brands. There also exists a wide array of small local or national food
processing companies.[31] Advanced technologies have also come to change food
manufacture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated processing and
packaging methods, and logistics and distribution advances, can enhance product
quality, improve food safety, and reduce costs.[30]
Commercial trade
International exports and imports
World Bank reported that the EU was the top food importer in 2005 followed at a
distance by the USA and Japan. Food is now traded and marketed on a global
basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the
diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing
season.[32] Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400% increase in worldwide
food exports.[33] Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports,
which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.[34]
In 1994 over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in trade
liberalization. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers,
underpinned by the WTO enforcement of agricultural subsidy, tariffs, import
quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.[35]
Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and
safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which
was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and
the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world
food trade.[36]
Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of
activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate."[37] The marketing of even
a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and
companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one can of
chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable
processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who
print labels and manufacture cans.[38] The food marketing system is the largest
direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States.
In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when
farmers took their wares on market day, into the local village market place.
Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by
local consumers.[13][30] With the onset of industrialization, and the
development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold
and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be
counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted,
so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.[13][39]
In the 20th century supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a
self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer
quality food at lower cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing
costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further
revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized out-of-town
supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.[40]
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small
number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The
supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and
strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than ten percent of consumer
spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising,
transportation, and intermediate corporations.[41]
Prices
Consumers worldwide faced rising food prices, it was reported on March 24, 2008.
Reasons for this development are freak weather, dramatic changes in the global
economy, including higher oil prices, lower food reserves and growing consumer
demand in China and India. In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize.
Farmers will grow more grain for both fuel and food and eventually bring prices
down. Already this is happening with wheat, with more crops to be planted in the
United States, Canada and Europe in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture
Organization projects that consumers still face at least until 2018 more
expensive food. It is rare that the spikes are hitting all major foods in most
countries at once. Food prices rose 4 percent in the United States 2007, the
highest rise since 1990, and are expected to climb as much again 2008. As of
December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of
food-price controls. In China, the price of pork has jumped 58 percent in 2007.
In the 1990s and 1980s, farm subsidies and support programs allowed major grain
exporting countries to hold large surpluses, which could be tapped during food
shortages to keep prices down. But new trade policies have made agricultural
production much more responsive to market demands -- putting global food
reserves at their lowest since 1983.[42]
Food prices are rising, wealthier Asian consumers are westernizing their diets,
and farmers and nations of the third world are struggling to keep up the pace.
The past five years have seen rapid growth in the contribution of Asian nations
to the Global Fluid and Powdered Milk Manufacturing industry, which in 2008
accounts for more than 30% of production, while China alone accounts for more
than 10% of both production and consumption in the Global Fruit and Vegetable
Processing and Preserving industry. The trend is similarly evident in industries
such as Soft Drink and Bottled Water Manufacturing, as well as Global Cocoa,
Chocolate and sugar Confectionery Manufacturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and
10.0% respectively during 2008 in response to soaring demand in China and
Southeast Asian markets [43].
Famine and hunger
Italian €2 commemorative coin of 2004 celebrating the World Food Programme
Italian €2 commemorative coin of 2004 celebrating the World Food Programme
Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often
connected with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities.
This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality.
Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most
notably during times of war.[8]
Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million
people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from
hunger-related causes.[44] Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in
Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales.[45]
Food aid
Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to
improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its
standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required.[46]
Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local
markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a
cycle of food aid dependence can develop.[47] Its provision, or threatened
withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of
the destination country, a strategy known as food politics. Sometimes, food aid
provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers,
and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of donor countries.[48]
International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are often
co-ordinated by the World Food Programme.[49]
Safety
Salmonella bacteria is a common cause of foodborne illness, particularly in
undercooked chicken and chicken eggs
Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by bacteria,
toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food
poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal
version.[50] The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne
illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods
and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can
also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper
storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be
adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during
farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign
bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips,
and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food
to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a
ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.[50]
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Flowchart
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Flowchart
Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as
Hippocrates.[51] The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was
commonplace until introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in
the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and
other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to
the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today.
This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the
development of modern food storage and food preservation methods.[52] In more
recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has
led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many
risks.[53]
Allergies
Main article: food allergy
Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic
to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain
food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and
8% of children have a food allergy.[54] The amount of the food substance
required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be
quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be
perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in
extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn,
shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy.[54] Allergens frequently produce
symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The
digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the
allergen.[54]
Rarely, food allergies can lead to a medical emergency, such as anaphylactic
shock, hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen
associated with this type of reaction is peanut, although latex products can
induce similar reactions.[54] Initial treatment is with epinephrine
(adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an Epi-pen.[55]
Diet
A package of halal-certified frozen food (steamed cabbage buns) from Jiangsu
province, China
A package of halal-certified frozen food (steamed cabbage buns) from Jiangsu
province, China
Main article: Diet (nutrition)
Cultural and religious diets
Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when
choosing what foods to eat.[56] Although humans are omnivores, many cultures
hold some food preferences and some food taboos. Dietary choices can also define
cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only kosher foods are
permitted by Judaism, and halal/haram foods by Islam, in the diet of
believers.[57] In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or
regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's
cuisine.
Children in this photograph from a Nigerian orphanage show symptoms of
malnutrition, with four illustrating the gray-blond hair symptomatic of
kwashiorkor.
Children in this photograph from a Nigerian orphanage show symptoms of
malnutrition, with four illustrating the gray-blond hair symptomatic of
kwashiorkor.
Diet deficiencies
Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all
humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in
either starvation or excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known as body
fat.[58] Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases which
can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's
population either has, or is at risk for developing, Iodine deficiency.[59] It
is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to vitamin A
deficiency.[60] Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy.[61] Calcium, Vitamin D
and phosphorus are inter-related; the consumption of each may affect the
absorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are childhood disorders
caused by lack of dietary protein.[62]
Moral, ethical, and health conscious diet
Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other
habit. For instance vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to
varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats
and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants.[63] Obesity, a
serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing
heart disease, diabetes, and many other diseases.[64] More recently, dietary
habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible
impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food.[65] Further
concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on animal welfare,
human health and the environment are also having an effect on contemporary human
dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a counterculture with a
preference for organic and local food.[66]
Nutrition
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or
malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or
alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can
produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as scurvy,
obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The
science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects
influence health.
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means fat,
protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins.
Additionally food contains water and dietary fiber.
Legal definition
Some countries list a legal definition of food. These countries list food as any
item that is to be processed, partially processed or unprocessed for
consumption. The listing of items included as foodstuffs include any substance,
intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by humans. In addition to
these foodstuffs drink, chewing gum, water or other items processed into said
food items are part of the legal definition of food. Items not included in the
legal definition of food include animal feed, live animals unless being prepared
for sale in a market, plants prior to harvesting, medicinal products, cosmetics,
tobacco and tobacco products, narcotic or psychotropic substances, and residues
and contaminants.[
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